Effects of Drugs and Alcohol to the Body Essay Example for Free

Effects of Drugs and Alcohol to the Body Essay The effects of drugs and alcohol may vary on the kind of drug, the dosage, the frequency, the persons’ body element and metabolism, and the type of personality. According to the American Academy of child and adolescent psychiatry, 20 million adults in the United States abused alcohol and half of these abusers were teenagers. Teens usually perceive drugs and alcohols as a solution to their problems, to gain popularity, to become active, to have pleasure and at times due to curiosity and peer pressure. They simply disregard the fact that this will only harm their bodies, mess up their entire lives, and could even lead them to death. The effects of these substances are danger to human brain and body. Drugs are considered pervasive. It compromises the ability of the body to function well. It affects both physical and psychological aspects. Over consumption or tolerance to this effect can lead to physiological problem. Pathophysiology traces alcohol primarily on blood. Because alcohols are permeable to the cell membrane of the body, it can easily diffuse to the bloodstream and causes â€Å"blood-sludging† of which blood vessels are being plug up while the tissues and oxygen of the body are being starve, thus causing cell death. Further breaking of the blood vessels and cell death causes malfunction of the system of the body causing excessive bleeding or hemorrhage, predisposing factor of cancer and leading to death. Other effect of high concentration alcohol level on the blood is the depletion of red and white blood count which is the main component of the blood. Common blood disorders are anemia, bone marrow depression, and inability to fight infections. The first step in alcohol abuse treatment is detoxification. A doctor will give a prescription for one to have a high dose of medication for the first day of not drinking alcohol. In the succeeding days of the week, the patient will slowly lessen the dose of the medicine. The medicine usually reduces withdrawal symptoms â€Å"A breathalyser may be used to confirm that you are not drinking† (http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/27000488/What is detoxification?). It is important for the patient to have the support of his family amidst his medication process in order for him to gain motivation and inspiration. In treating drug addicts, it is advised for them to undergo Cognitive behavior therapy. This kind of therapy is also used in treating alcohol abuse. Many drugs and alcohol users are from a situation of hardships and problems in life. They find drugs and alcohol as coping mechanism. â€Å"Cognitive behavior therapy is based on the idea that feelings and behaviors are caused by a persons thoughts, not on outside stimuli like people, situations and events† (http://alcoholism.about.com/od/effect/The_Effects_of_Alcohol_and_Drugs.htm). In this kind of therapy, the therapist will make the patient recognized the situations and reasons why he is taking drugs and alcohol. The first thing taught in this therapy is how to do away from situations like those and how they can cope with it. The Cognitive Therapy may lasts until 12 sessions or depending upon the progress of the patient. Again, family support is vital in the process of treatment. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dunlap, M. P.. Biological Impacts Of Alcohol Use: An Overview. Retrieved August 6, 2007 from http://www.oregoncounseling.org/ArticlesPapers/Documents/ETOHBIOFx.htm Effects of Alcohol on the Body. Retrieved August 6, 2007 from http://www.therightmix.gov.au/pdfs/EffectsOnBody.pdf Teens: Alcohol and other Drugs. Retrieved August 6, 2007 from http://www.aacap.org/page.ww?section=Facts+for+Familiesname=Teens%3A+Alcohol+And+Other+Drugs Alcohol detoxification. Rtrieved August 8, 2007 http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/27000488/What is detoxification? http://alcoholism.about.com/od/effect/The_Effects_of_Alcohol_and_Drugs.htm

Pestle analysis of indian tourism industry

Pestle analysis of indian tourism industry PESTLE Analysis of Indian tourism industry Introduction about the topic : It is time for Indias Tourism sector. Driven by a surge in business traveller arrivals and a soaring interest in India as a tourist destination, the year 2006 has been the best year till date. Incredible India !! India is probably the only country that offers various categories of tourism. These include history tourism, adventure tourism, medical tourism (ayurveda and other forms of Indian medications), spiritual tourism, beach tourism (India has the longest coastline in the East) etc. Explore India choose the locales of your choice, and see what each state has to offer. Lose yourself in the wonder that is India. Meander through lands steeped in chivalry and pageantry that begin before recorded history. Explore modern cities that have grown organically from the roots of a multi-hued past. Make a pilgrimage to holy shrines that echo with tales of antiquity. Frolic on a vast array of golden beaches that dot an enviable coastline, washed by two seas and an ocean. Sport with adventure in style. Let the jungle lure you to a fascinating world at a diverse array of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. this is the wonder that is India. Indian Tourism industry is one of the most important export industries of the country. Although the international tourist inflow is relatively low, India has found tourism emerging as an important sector of its economy. Tourism yields substantial foreign exchange for India. It is turning into a volume game where a large number of participants are contributing to the revenue of the industry. Segments such as hotels, tour operators, airlines, shipping etc. Growth period of Indian tourism industry The tourism industry in India is substantial and vibrant, and the country is fast becoming a major global destination. Indias travel and tourism industry is one of them most profitable industries in the country, and also credited with contributing a substantial amount of foreign exchange. This is illustrated by the fact that during 2006, four million tourists visited India and spent US $8.9 billion. Several reasons are cited for the growth and prosperity of Indias travel and tourism industry. Economic growth has added millions annually to the ranks of Indias middle class, a group that is driving domestic tourism growth. Disposable income in India has grown by 10.11% annually from 2001-2006. Thanks in part to its booming IT and outsourcing industry a growing number of business trips are made by foreigners to India, who will often add a weekend break or longer holiday to their trip. Foreign tourists spend more in India than almost any other country worldwide. Tourist arrivals are projected to increase by over 22% per year through till 2010, with a 33% increase in foreign exchange. The Tourism Ministry has also played an important role in the development of the industry, initiating advertising campaigns such as the Incredible India campaign, which promoted Indias culture and tourist attractions in a fresh and memorable way. The campaign helped create a colorful image of India in the minds of consumers all over the world, and has directly led to an increase in the interest in tourism industry has helped growth in other sectors as diverse as horticulture, handicrafts, agriculture, construction and even poultry. Welcome to Incredible India Namaskar, Welcome to Incredible India! A journey into mysticism through the land of the unexpected. Bounded by the majestic Himalayan ranges in the north and edged by an endless stretch of golden beaches, India is a vivid kaleidoscope of landscapes, magnificent historical sites and royal cities, misty mountain retreats, colorful people, rich cultures and festivities. Modern India is home alike to the tribal with his anachronistic lifestyle and to the sophisticated urban jet-setter. It is a land where temple elephants exist amicably with the microchip. Its ancient monuments are the backdrop for the worlds largest democracy. If youre planning a holiday to India, looking for hotels and accommodation and events information or simply interested in India as a country you are sure to find many insights on the multifaceted travel options to India here.The timeless mystery and beauty of India can be experienced only by visiting this ancient Land. Theres just one thing youll need to travel through 5000 years of culture and tradition- A comfortable pair of shoes. The following table provides the major tourist attractions in India by state: < Tourist Attraction State Charminar Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Kaziranga National Park Assam Qutub Minar Delhi Mangueshi Temple Goa Shimla Himachal Pradesh Dal Lake Jammu and Kashmir Jog Falls Shimoga District, Karnataka Kovalam Beach Kerala Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh Ajanta Maharashtra Puri Orissa Golden Temple Amritsar, Punjab Jaipur Rajasthan Chennai Tamil Nadu Badrinath Temple Uttarakhand Varanasi Uttar Pradesh The various segments within tourism are: Medical Tourism It is one of the fastest growing segments in India. India has been able to leverage on certain advantages it has over other countries like highly skilled doctors, cost effective treatment, improved quality of private healthcare etc. Some of the common treatments for which overseas patients to come to India are heart surgery, knee transplant, cosmetic surgery and dental care. Indias traditional rejuvenation therapy like yoga and ayurvedic therapy are also becoming popular. Eco Tourism It is relatively new segment in India. It involves visiting natural areas without disturbing the fragile ecosystem. Eco tourism generates wealth for the local people, who in turn take measures to conserve and protect the environment and natural resources. India with its natural diversity is one of the pristine places in the world for eco tourism. The Himalayan region, Kerala, Northeast, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep islands the Western and Eastern Ghats are some of the hot spots for eco tourism in India. India has some of the best wildlife reserves in the world, rich in flora and fauna. Heritage Tourism Heritage tourism is a very lucrative segment in India. It is widely believed it would emerge as the most important segment within tourism in terms of revenue generation by 2010.India has a rich cultural history and reflection of its glorious past is still visible in its numerous forts, monuments, palaces, places of worship etc. Heritage tourism itself can be further classified as colonial heritage, urban renewal, religious tourism, industrial heritage and ethnicity. The Indian government must show keen interest in preserving the heritage sites from a tourism perspective. Adventure Tourism Indias varied geographical and climatic conditions offer excellent opportunity for adventure sports. In recent times the popularity of adventure tourism has increased. Adventure sports like river rafting, rock climbing, mountaineering, trekking, skiing, snow climbing, scuba diving and angling can be undertaken in the country and the country offers multiple locations to choose from. The trans Himalayan region, the Garhwal and Kumaon mountains, the Western Ghats, deserts of Rajasthan, Andaman and Lakshadweep islands are some of the most popular destination for adventure tourism. Future trends The real GDP growth for travel and tourism economy is expected to be 0.2 per cent in 2009 and is expected to grow at an average of 7.7 per cent per annum in the coming decade. Earning through exports from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 6.0 per cent of total exports (nearly $16.9 billion) in 2009 and expected to increase to US$ 51.4 billion in 2019. According to the Ministry of Tourism, Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) for the period from January to March in 2009 was 1.461 million. For the month of March 2009 the FTAs was 472000.The reason for the decline is attributed to the ongoing economic crisis. In spite of the short term and medium term impediment due to the global meltdown the revenues from tourism is expected to increase by 42 per cent from 2007 to 2017. PESTLE Analysis of tourism industry Definition The PESTLE framework is an analysis tool that is used to identify the key drivers of change in the strategic environment (Johnson et al., 2008). PESTLE analysis includes Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, and Environmental factors. Political effect on tourism industry- Political violence has done considerable damage to tourism in Asia and the Pacific over the past few years. But industry experts say the damage is not necessarily permanent. Governments and industry leaders say much can be done to rebuild tattered tourism reputations. As the world watched, a small band of terrorists killed scores in Mumbai last November. Although India has often suffered from political violence, this attack aimed largely at travelers and foreigners was a new horror. The globally televised attack, coming during an international economic slump, contributed to an eight percent fall in tourist arrivals this year. In Thailand, tens of thousands of anti-government protesters laid siege to Bangkoks airports late last year, essentially trapping more than 350,000 travelers in the country for a week. Before that shock had worn off, a few months later, another group of protesters led violent riots in Bangkok. The two incidents added to the damage from the world economy cut tourist arrivals to Thailand by 20 percent in the first six months of 2009. Phornsiri Manoharn, the chairwoman of the Pacific Asia Travel Association, says many tourists still worry that Thailands political tensions could spoil their visits. When people saw any demonstration like that they associate with the closing of the airport, said Manoharn. Even [though] we dont close [the airport] but they look like the demonstration, that they might and thats why theyre afraid. Tourism is important to the Asia-Pacific region. In Southeast Asia, it contributes over three percent to economic output. In some parts of the region, tourism accounts for 10 percent of employment; in the Pacific island nations of Fiji and Vanuatu, the figure is over 30 percent. But as India and Thailand have seen, violence and instability quickly scare away visitors. Recovery comes, but usually more slowly than after natural disasters. John Koldowski is PATAs communications director. What we have seen in many cases is where there is some sort of intervention effect its been natural or no fault of anybody the rebound has been very quick, he said. Where there has been intent to cause harm as in the case of a say terrorist attack and where there has been a long history of such attacks occurring in that destination or nearby destination, it takes a little longer to come back. But with the right government and industry responses, visitors will return. For instance, in October 2002, bombs set off by Islamic militants on the island of Bali killed more than 200 people, most of them foreigners. The island, one of the worlds most famous tourist destinations, saw arrivals fall by 36 percent in 2003. Koldowski said the first bombings shocked the tourism industry. Bali is a classic case there it took some time [to recover] because it had never occurred there before it was so dramatic and affected specific western tourists, he said. But the Indonesian government cracked down on terrorists and boosted security. And tourism industry professionals worked hard to woo back visitors. When another attack three years later left 20 people dead, PATA reported that tourist arrivals were little affected. And twin bombings at international hotels in Jakarta last July are expected to do little damage to tourism. In South Asia, Sri Lanka and Nepal hope the end of long-running conflicts will entice more visitors. Sri Lankan officials say the end of a civil war earlier this year brought a surge of interest from foreign investors and hotel operators. Dileep Mudadeniya, Sri Lankan Tourism Promotion Bureau managing director, says there are opportunities for tourism, particularly in areas long closed off by the war. North and east, which have not actually taken any kind of development for the last 20 years, virgin beaches, land, monuments is available and the people also come and exploit something or look at something totally undiscovered, said Mudadeniya. We are going on the line which is undiscovered, unspoiled, an island of authenticity, which we can offer. In Nepal, political agreements have ended a Maoist insurgency that lasted more than a decade. The minister for Tourism and Civil Aviation, Sharatsingh Bhandari, says Nepals transition from conflict to peace is in itself a tourism draw. Now we are going to form a new Nepal. So giving the message for the New Nepal and inviting the people to see, not only the prospect of tourism itself but even the process of transition of the political system from bullet to ballot. That was done successfully by the Nepalese themselves, he said. Industry analysts say tourism in Asia is likely to expand rapidly over the next few years. But, the key, they say, is that governments find ways to prevent political violence, and act quickly to calm fears when it does happen. Economic effect on tourism industry- The service economy is driving growth in most OECD countries. It represents a large part of economic activity and its importance continues to grow. Tourism, a large, complex and fragmented industry which is still very difficult to define and measure, is a key component of the service economy (30% of international trade in services in the OECD area). In terms of revenue, OECD countries generate about 70% of world tourism activity. Tourism, which has expanded dramatically over the past 30 years, looks set to continue growing as societies become more mobile and prosperous. Obtaining better information on services, the least developed side of statistics, is an important challenge for statistical agencies and a necessity for political analysis. Measuring tourism is part of a wider move to improve our knowledge of how economies work, what they produce and what changes occur over time. It is no longer enough to measure physical flows (arrivals and overnight stays) and monetary data (revenue and expenditure relating to international tourism). In the early 1980s, the OECD began work to set up a model acceptable at international level which gave rise to the OECD Tourism Economic Accounts, which measure certain socio-economic aspects of tourism. While developing this tool, the OECD produced a more precise definition of tourism, visitors and tourist expenditure [Note: OECD (1996), OECD Tourism Statistics Design and Application for Policy]. Despite its economic importance, governments, especially in developed economies, still do not adequately recognise tourism. For this reason, the OECD has developed and recently approved the OECD Guidelines for a Tourism Satellite Account and an Employment Module. These integrated statistical tools aim to measure the economic aspects of tourism (value added, jobs, revenue, investment, profits) in order to provide a more convincing demonstration of this activitys economic significance. Furthermore, together with the United Nations, the World Tourism Organization and the European Commission (Eurostat), the OECD has developed a UN-WTO-OECD-EUROSTAT Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework, approved by the 25-member United Nations Statistical Commission on 1 March 2000. A publication is available. Other work undertaken in this area includes statistical research. OECD and Eurostat regularly organise international forums on tourism statistics to share ideas, experiences and concepts with Member and non-members countries, the scientific community and the tourism industry. The United Kingdom, with the support of Eurostat and the OECD, organised the Fifth International Forum on Tourism Statistics (Glasgow, 20-23 June 2000). Similar forums have been organised in Vienna (1994), in Venice (1995), in Sintra (1996) and in Copenhagen (1998). Technological effect on tourism industry- Definition of Tourism Technology The convergence of industries has forced people to create terminology such as information technology, biotechnology, ubiquitous technology and even cultural technology to explain frequently talked about topics. Tourism Technology is a term that encompasses all social, cultural, managerial, and value-adding activities of the tourism industry. Tourism Technology also incorporates and encourages technological advancements and economic development in the tourism industry. The Origin of Tourism Technology Tourism Technology, initially based on the concept of cultural technology, is a more comprehensive term covering knowledge used to add to the value of tourism products on a micro level and the management of the travel and tourism industry on a macro level. New tourism products are also the end result of tourism technology combining with other industries. These include medical tourism, educational tourism, agricultural tourism, marine tourism and the application of information technology to the travel and tourism industry. Application of Tourism Technology The term technology can easily call to mind scientific achievements, computer graphic skills, special effects and other engineering-related images. However, Tourism Technology encompasses the integrated fields mentioned in the previous paragraph, statistics, managerial and socio-cultural know-how, and skills that the tourism industry can adopt to design, produce, and market various tourism products. In addition to coordinating various aspects of human resources in the travel and tourism industry, â€Å"Tourism Technology† describes a comprehensive field containing but not limited to such widely referred to subjects as entertainment technology, contents technology and creative technology. Software for Tourists One of the latest applications is software that permits tourists to customize their visits according to their preferences. Luis Castillo Vidal, computer engineer of the University of Granada and one of the authors of the study, points out that, in order to design the customized visit plans, they have used Artificial Intelligence techniques, â€Å"a science that provides computers with abilities to solve problems which, in principle, can only be solved by humans†. Users must have access to the internet, either through a computer, a mobile phone or a PDA, in order to be able to access a web where they can define their preferences and needs, such as their artistic, cultural and gastronomic preferences, their lifestyle and favourite hours, whether they are disabled or not and the spending capacity. Environmental effect on tourism industry- The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism. However, tourisms relationship with the environment is complex. It involves many activities that can have adverse environmental effects. Many of these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas. The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. On the other hand, tourism has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It is a way to raise awareness of environmental values and it can serve as a tool to finance protection of natural areas and increase their economic importance. Three main impact areas: natural resources, pollution, and physical impacts Environmental impacts at the global level Other industry impacts on tourism How tourism can contribute to environmental conservation Social effect on tourism industry- Jamaica is primarily a sun, sea and sand destination and, therefore, the primary recreational activities of visitors include sun and sea bathing on the beaches. Tourists who visit Jamaica are, therefore, primarily involved in activities such as going to the beach, snorkelling, scuba diving and glass-bottom boating. Jamaicas tourism product is dependent on the coral reefs and their associated ecosystems such as seagrass beds and mangroves. These ecosystems are, however, threatened by natural causes and human behaviour such as coastal pollution, rapid coastal development, over-fishing and global warming. All parties involved (the citizens, the tourism industry and the visitors) have a vested interest in the management of the environmental resource base and an obligation to do their part to support this management. If the environment is degraded all parties stand to lose visitors will fail to come (or will be willing to pay less) and the countries will lose an important source of economic benefit. In other words the environment will produce reduced economic, ecological, and amenity benefits. Microeconomic theory is essentially the study of the equitable distribution of scarce goods or benefits. In this example the scarce benefit is the Jamaican beach tourism product. The economic theory provides approaches to making the demand and supply of these scarce benefits more efficient. Demand of the good in this case is the beach-lust (sun, sand, sea) tourism of Jamaica. This is in contrast to the wonder-lust tourism such as safaris, mountain climbing, cultural and heritage tourism that is observed in other parts of the world. The good is supplied at a cost which would include the traditional costs of, labour and capital etc. However when the cost of the provision of the good does not take into account negative externalities such as environmental damage, this results in market failure. If this market failure is not corrected it will result in a loss in social welfare (dead-weight loss). Jamaicas current tourism model is based on the construction of mega super inclusive resorts, which often require engineering solutions such as dredging, groyne construction and limestone blasting in order to create swimming beaches, and construct buildings a few meters away from the high water mark. Construction and operation of tourist facilities such as hotels and other attractions also result in significant alterations to the terrestrial environment, trees, insects, birds etc. Operation of these entities also results in the diversion of resources such as water and electricity which could have been used elsewhere in the society. MARKET FAILURE Increased construction activity in the coast provides relatively short term and low-skilled employment. The intermittent demand for this pool of labour often results in the proliferation of unplanned settlements and squatter communities that are established close to the resort areas. These settlements are typically located in the hills and mountains above the coast. The creation of these communities results in the destruction of the watershed in these areas as well as inadequate sewage treatment and solid waste management. All of which contribute to reduced environmental quality; for example, reduced water quality as a result of increased nutrients and turbidity in the coastal waters. The simple economic analysis of Jamaicas tourism model outlined above suggests that market failure exists. The fundamental reason for the market failure associated with Jamaicas tourism model is the fact that the economic rent associated with the natural environment is not captured by the people of Jamaica. Economic rent is an excess return on an asset, a profit above normal market rates of return. Rents usually arise from assets that are scarce and fixed in supply. Beachfront property is a very good example of the type of assets that will yield economic rent. Or another example is the higher property costs in Coopers Hill or Beverly Hills when compared to Havendale or Mona, the economic rent (or value added) in this case being a view of the city. It can be argued that economic rents such as the beauty and natural environment should accrue to the people of Jamaica and not to foreign tourists or tourism operators. Rents are essentially a type of payment for the use of the resource. So the first reason for market failure is that there is no real capture of economic rents. A second example of market failure is that these tourism entities that are currently gaining all of the rents are also not accounting for the negative externalities of their activities. For example, hotels do not pay for the true costs of pollution and negative impacts associated with the use and operation of their facilities. However the problem of market failure does not stop here. As with several other Caribbean nations, the development of the tourism industry is heavily subsidised by the Jamaican government. Hotels and attractions are given tax holidays (e.g. no taxes for 10, 15, 20 years), duty is waived on imports of construction materials among other things. Additionally, the Governments facilitation such as fast-tracking permit requirements and their suspected role in circumventing environmental and planning regulations can reduce costs to investors and also be viewed as a subsidy. So in addition to the non-capture of rent and ignoring negative externalities, government subsidies to the tourism industry through tax holidays and other waivers also exacerbate the problem of market failure. This in turn means that the welfare of the society i.e. the Jamaican people is even more reduced. POSSIBLE REMEDIES As was highlighted above correcting market failures can be achieved through the implementation of taxes. In the case of Jamaicas coastal tourism this would mean that investors are forced to internalise environmental costs. This would theoretically lead to better environmental management and sustainable development of the tourism industry. However, given the current political climate in Jamaica and the influence of the tourism industry players this suggestion is likely to be received with hostility. Given this fact a more feasible way of capturing some of the economic rent is to capture a small portion of the benefits that accrue to the visitors to the island. This would be through the use of the existing system of arrivals taxes from cruise and stopover visitors to the island. However, unlike the current system where the charges are often hidden in room surcharges or airline tickets the additional environmental tax should be explicitly identified. HIDDEN COSTS There are, of course, wider questions of the true economic contribution of tourism. Clearly tourism is very important to Jamaicas economic sustainability. The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32 per cent of total employment and 36 per cent of the countrys GDP according to many studies. However, based on some of the market failures described above, are there more costs that are not being considered? Tourism has many hidden costs, which can have unfavourable economic effects on host countries such as Jamaica. The direct income for a country is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains after taxes, profits, and wages are paid and after imports are purchased; these subtracted amounts are called leakage. For the all-inclusive tourism model, studies show that about 80 per cent of travellers expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies, and not to local businesses or workers. In addition, significant amounts of income actually retained at the destination level can leave again through leakage. For example, the profits gained by foreign-owned tour operators, airlines, hotels, are repatriated to their home countries. Estimates made for Third World countries range from 80 per cent in the Caribbean to 40 per cent in India. In laymans term, on average, of each US$100 spent on a vacation tour by a tourist from a developed country, only about US$5 actually stays in the developing-country destinations economy. The current tensions between local craft vendors, restaurants and other service industries and large resort chains are all too common and point to the problem of leakage. Super inclusive hotels do not encourage guests to venture outside the walls of the hotel and so most of the tourists experience is limited to the entertainment as well as the sun, sea and sand activities available at that location. One could say that Jamaica the country is not the destination, it is actually the resort that is the destination. More comprehensive studies on this issue are urgently required by our academic institutions in the region. Caribbean researchers have a responsibility to provide balanced information that can enrich the discourse between all the relevant stakeholders. Much of the discourse is driven by short sightedness and politics on one side and passionate advocacy on the other. Too often the arguments of the contending parties (developers versus environmental advocates) are not supported by balanced information. Legal effect on tourism industry- MUSCAT Tourist traffic into the Sultanate is projected to scale new highs next year on the back of a raft of major initiatives, most notably an aggressive campaign targeting new markets, according to the Under-Secretary of the Ministry of Tourism Mini

A Comparison of Biographic Features in The Sun Also Rises and The Great

A Comparison of Biographic Features in The Sun Also Rises and The Great Gatsby The writers F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway included biographical information in their novels The Great Gatsby and The Sun Also Rises that illuminated the meaning of the work. Although The Sun Also Rises is more closely related to actual events in Hemingway's life than The Great Gatsby was to events in Fitzgerald's life, they both take the same approach. They both make use of non-judgemental narrators to comment on the "lost generation". This narrator allows Fitzgerlald and Hemingway to write about their own society. Fitzgerlald comments on the jaded old-wealth society of the Eastern United States and the corruption of the American Dream. Hemingway comments on the effects of World War I on the "lost generation" and the hope for the future in the next generation. By adding biographical features into their novels both Fitzgerald and Hemingway are able to give their novels that extra depth because the plot of the novels are more realistic and accurately reflect the society of the times. The story in Fitzgerald's book contains basic ideas from his life, not nessesarily actual events. Several characters have biographical characterization and the novel reflects his own experiences. Hemingway's novel, however, is almost entirely based on actual events that happened to Hemingway and a group of his friends. This enhances the realism of The Sun Also Rises. Fitzgerald and The Great Gatsby In his novel, The Great Gatsby Francis Scott Fitzgerald includes many autobiographical features to enhance and illuminate the themes of the work. Certain main characters like Daisy Buchannon, Jay Gatsby, and the narrator Nick Carraway are repre... ...emingway are able to enhance the meaning of their work and provide extra credibility and realism into their plot. Fitzzgerald takes a rejection from his life and uses that idea to expand off from to write a social commentary on the corruption of the American Dream by the old-rich of the Eastern United States. Hemingway takes actual events from his life and used that as a basis for the plot of his novel. This enhanced the theme by describing the effect of World War I on Hemingway's generation. Bibliography: Works Cited Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway, A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969 p147-155 Donaldson, Scott. Fool for Love. New York: Dell Publishing, 1983 Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, 1980 Hemingway, Ernest. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, 1986

Women in Shakespeares Much Ado About Nothing and Taming of the Shrew E

During the early modern period, despite Queen Elizabeth’s powerful rule in the mid-sixteenth century, women in England had very few social, economic, and legal rights. According to the British system of coverture, a married man and wife became one person under the law, thus, â€Å"all the legal rights and responsibilities a woman had when she was single transferred to her husband upon marriage† (McBride-Stetson 189). Additionally, once married, the entirety of a woman’s property and wages came under the husband’s control; thus, in essence, women became the responsibility and property of their husbands (McBride-Stetson 189). Shakespeare, through his writings, illustrates the early modern period’s obsession with maintaining the legal subordination of women through marriage. Shakespeare’s leading lady in The Taming of the Shrew severely contrasts her obedient and demure sister and, in doing so, transcends the gender roles appropriated to her and , thus, must be tamed. In contrast, Much Ado About Nothing’s Hero plays the role of the ideal early modern woman until the nature of her chastity comes into question. Despite the fundamental differences between the characters of these two women, the financial and object-based language used to describe women as well as the institution of marriage in The Taming of the Shrew and Much Ado About Nothing demonstrate the early modern period’s view of women as pieces of property. The play introduces Petruccio as Katherine’s potential suitor before Petruccio, in fact, meets Katherine; however, Petruccio asserts, â€Å"I have thrust myself into this maze/ Happily to wive and thrive as I may† (1.2.52-53). Interestingly, Petruccio lists â€Å"wiving† as his first goal, followed by â€Å"thriving.† In a sense, the ... ...r to that of property and subject to male control. Clearly, the study of these plays serve as prime examples in demonstrating the effect of British common law during the early modern period as well as depicting the society’s anxieties in regards to maintaining the ultimate upper-hand in regards to women’s rights, or, lack thereof. Although Hero is, for the most part, painted as a virtuous character throughout Much Ado About Nothing, the question of her virtue is not only known to be a false-accusation to the audience, but her chastity is quickly restored at the end of the play. Likewise, Petruccio is able to remedy Katherine’s shrewish behavior into that of a young lady. Clearly, the plots of these plays as well as the repeated associations between women and one’s property overtly demonstrate a societal desire to maintain a sense of power and domination over women.

The Marine Assault on Tinian Essay -- Battle for Tinian

Introduction Tinian is a small island in the Marianas group lying approximately 3,500 miles west of Hawaii and 1,400 miles southeast of Tokyo Japan. The island was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan who landed on the island of Guam first in 1521. The island remained under Spanish control for centuries. Tinian remained under Spanish control until the Spanish-American war of 1898, when the American cruiser USS Charleston entered the harbor in Guam to claim that island. Spain took notice at the end of the war and sold the remaining islands of the Marianas to include Tinian to Germany. Germany’s regime lasted shortly when the first world war and seized the Mariana Islands except for Guam which remained under US control. The native people of the Marianas are known as Chamorros, and the native language is Chamorro. Although the original language is now mixed with Spanish, German, and Japanese, it is still thought until today. During the Second World War after the attack on Pearl Harbor Guam was also attacked and seized by the Japanese military this is when the Pacific war had begun. The United States now focused their attention on the Philippines, Iwo Jima, and the Mariana Islands. Hoping to capture Guam back from the Japanese, United States also wanted to capture the remaining islands. These islands would be in the front lines of the war in the Pacific. 1 History Why did the United States Military want to take control of Tinian? The island would be the new home of the newly created Twentieth Air Force. The United States saw Ushi Point Airfield as the perfect location to set up the air base, which would land its B-29s while en route to bomb Japan. The Marines also needed to take control of Tinian in order to prevent the Japanese ... ...n the plan of attack, and a realistic logistics plan that can keep abreast of the attack. These few principles have been the keys to victory countless times in the past and will continue to unlock the door to victory on the battlefields of the future. These are the lessons that are the heritage of the Tinian Battle, and we still use and also improve on by planning. The Battle for Tinian is one of the most successful planned amphibious operations in history.11 Works Cited Allan, May. Marine Assault on Tinian. Volume 13. July 1998. Prefer, Nathan. The Battle for Tinian. Philadelphia: United States of America and Great Britain by Casemate Publishers. 2012. LtGen William K. Jones, USMC(Ret). Marine Corps Gazette. Marine Corps Association: Marine Corps Association Jun 1988. Major Hoffman, Carl. The seizure of Tinian. Washington DC Printing: 1951

Transfer of Learning

1. IntroductionTransportation of Learning â€Å" That about charming nexus between schoolroom public presentation and something which is supposed to go on in the existent universe † – J. M. Swinney. ( Everett, 2010 ) Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context or with one set of stuffs impacts on public presentation in another context or with other related stuffs. It is the application of cognition, attitudes and accomplishments acquired in a course of study at a university ( Perkins, 1992 ) . Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context enhances ( positive transportation ) or undermines ( negative transportation ) a related public presentation in another context. Transfer includes near transportation ( to closely related contexts and public presentations ) and far transportation ( to instead different contexts and public presentations ) . ( Perkins, 1992 ) . One of the major constructs in instruction and larning theory is the transportation of larning construct. Typically the ultimate contexts of application ( occupation, calling ) diverge conspicuously from the context of larning ( schoolrooms, exercising books, trials, simple streamlined undertakings ) . As a consequence, the concluding ends of instruction are non realized unless transportation occurs. Furthermore, transportation of knowledge/learning can non be taken for granted ; as it is shown in assorted surveies were frequently the hoped transportation from larning experiences did non happen ( Perkins, 1992 ) . In add-on, for bettering instruction non merely this transportation of larning construct is of importance but besides the development of the teaching staff is indispensable The subject of this survey is to look into if instructors within the module of wellness medical specialty and life scientific disciplines ( FHML ) of the University of Maastricht besides are cognizant of this â€Å"transfer of learning† . Additionally, I would wish to look into if the instructor has a certain scheme refering transportation of acquisition and is portion of a professional development plan to better the instruction aka the transportation of cognition / acquisition.2. Description of the instructor.Dr. Herman Popeijus, is learning for approximately 4 at the University of Maastricht. He is chiefly learning first twelvemonth pupils, because since a twelvemonth he is the unit coordinator of the 2nd unit in the first twelvemonth of Health Sciences at the FHML. Furthermore he is involved in other units as a coach or as a accomplishments ( or practical ) trainer, although this is more in the course of study of Bio Medical Life Sciences at the FHML. In his function as unit coordinator, Herman, is involved in all facets of instruction, giving talks, steering workgroups and helping accomplishments developing for the first twelvemonth pupils. This interview was held Thursday, 25-03-2010, from 14:00 – 14:20 in the office of the interviewer. The interview was held in Dutch and taped utilizing a digital voice recording equipment. To hold a more natural treatment about the instruction methods and to bury about the voice recording equipment, the first 5 proceedingss of the interview were about day-to-day topics. Although the interviewer had some inquiries prepared as a guideline to direct the interview. An English interlingual rendition of the transcript is given in appendix A.3. AnalysisNo one method of content analysis can be used for all types of interview informations. Contented analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a individual method, current applications of content analysis show three distinguishable attacks: conventional, directed, or summational ( Hsieh & A ; Shannon, 2005 ) . These attacks are used to construe significance from the content of text informations or transcrip t informations of an interview. In conventional content analysis, coding classs are derived straight from the text informations. With a directed attack, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as counsel for initial codifications. A summational content analysis involves numbering and comparings, normally of keywords or content, followed by the reading of the underlying context. In this paper I choose the directed attack, with counsel for initial codifications. The focal point of the analysis is to look for schemes and for indicant of transportation of cognition by the instructor. The undermentioned codes/chategories were chosen: 1. Personal engagement in learning ; 2. Problems identified by the instructor ; 3. Solutions to the jobs ; 4. Professional development.4. Consequences4.1. Personal engagement in learningThe instructor gave multiple statements about this subject, as he is a unit coordinator his personal engagement in instruction is really profound. Due to this function, he is besides really involved in the content and may experience responsible for the result, ( e.g. class of his pupils ) . Therefore he is really focussed on transportation of cognition. He is besides cognizant of he ‘s possible short approachs, and is interested in the sentiments of the pupils about his instruction method. He tries to look into if transportation of cognition has occurred, coming back in his coach group on the subject, besides repeat indispensable stairss once more at the terminal of the coach group, or inquiring directed inquiry during his talks.4.2. Problems identified by the instructorAlthough, the instructor mentioned that there are several hard subjects or constructs in his unit, merely one illustration was given, but this was discussed extensively. Furthermore, he was cognizant that these jobs may besides be due to the fact that a big portion of the pupils have no anterior cognition of biological science and that biological science is card inal for this unit in which he is the unit coordinator.4.3. Solutions to the jobsThe chief focal point on work outing the jobs or job discussed was the usage of new electronic AIDSs. Such as available alive films, which are demoing these new constructs or jobs in great item. It has to be noted that the instructor was cognizant of the defects of this solution. However, the instructor did non advert other options, such as analogies which may be used alternatively every bit good.4.4. Professional developmentIt became clear from the interview that there is some kind of professional development plan available at his organisation, but so far he has non got any rating. The instructor feels this deficiency of aid a great girl. Although he mention that he took action on this point on his ain, by delegating to a specific instruction class, which is provide by his organisation. The instructor is really focused on the results from the pupils, and besides gives great value to the ratings from th e pupils, even though these are most in paper formats and non unwritten.5. Conclusion/Advice to the instructorDr. H. Popeijus ( HP ) has a clear position on his unit and what are the jobs within this unit, as became clear that for his unit some biological science background is necessary. His consciousness on instruction is really unfastened and modern ; he is integrating new techniques or characteristics in his talks. He is unfastened for the sentiments of the pupils and is clearly involved in transportation of cognition or acquisition, even though he might non be cognizant of this. From assorted surveies is known that the attending span of pupils is limited in the context of long talks. The â€Å"information transfer† theoretical account of the traditional talks does non fit what current cognitive scientific discipline research tells us of human acquisition ( Middendorf, 1996 ) . So by utilizing extra tools HP is seeking to act upon the information transportation during his talks. He besides mentions that he is cognizant of the drawback of utilizing alive films in his talks. However, with consciousness of the possible drawbacks of the big format, talks can be used as valuable tools for larning besides in a PBL course of study ( Fyrenius, Bergdahl, & A ; Silen, 2005 ) . Furthermore, it might besides be helpful to utilize analogies next to alive films because it can assist pupils to utilize the information they already understand to develop an apprehension of new constructs. Analogies are comparings between two spheres that are neither, wholly similar nor wholly different. These comparings are used to advance transportation of information from one specific job to another peculiar job ( MaryKay & A ; George, 2006 ) . Due to the fact that some pupils lack the biological science background it may useful to utilize analogies which domain is non in biological science but in another more basic field ( eg. Book with chapters as an analogy for DNA codification with cistrons ) . To better instruction or the instruction by staff members a high-quality professional development constituent would be of great value to the administration every bit good as add-on to the professional development of HP. â€Å"It is good recognized by policymakers that schools can be no better than the instructors and decision makers who work within them† ( Guskey, 2002 ) . It is good known that staff members or module members are passionate about their discipline/profession. They are besides really acute to reassign their cognition and the significance of this cognition to their pupils. Regardless of these good purposes, they may be so occupied with covering the capable affair that they lose path of how much of that stuff truly gets conveyed ( Montgomery, 1998 ) . It is hence that there are good developmental plans inside the institute or university to develop and alter the manner the instructors work. For most instructors, to go a better instructor means heightening pupils la rning results ( Guskey, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to the theoretical account from Guskey, of import alteration in instructors ‘ mentalities take topographic point after the instructors ‘ see grounds of betterments in pupil acquisition. When instructors have used new instructional attacks, or utilizing new stuff these betterments may happen. It is hence that there is a good ratings system for the instructors non merely on the degree of pupils outcome but besides on the public presentation as a instructor ego. An advice to HP is to seek such rating and counsel from his ain institute or administration. In drumhead the advice to HP is, maintain up with the new inventions in your talks, but besides seek to utilize analogies to clear up some hard jobs and seek to happen out if the university has some teacher staff development plans to better the instruction. Transfer of Learning Transfer of learning is the study of the dependency of human conduct, learning, or performance on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth. They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics – or more formally how â€Å"improvement in one mental function† could influence another related one.Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the proportion to which the learning task and the transfer task are similar, or where â€Å"identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function†, now known as identical element theory. Transfer research has since attracted much attention in numerous domains, producing a wealth of empirical findings and theoretical interpretations.However, there remains considerable controversy about how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explaine d, what its probability occurrence is, what its relation is to learning in general, or whether it may be said to exist at all. Most discussions of transfer to date can be developed from a common operational definition, describing it as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the transfer source) affect learning and performance in a current novel situation (the transfer target) (Ellis, 1965; Woodworth, 1938).This, however, is usually where the general consensus between various research approaches ends. Transfer taxonomies Of the various attempts to delineate transfer, typological and taxonomic approaches belong to the more common ones (see, e. g. , Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Butterfield, 1988; Detterman, 1993; Gagne, 1977; Reeves & Weisberg, 1994; Salomon & Perkins, 1989; Singley & Anderson, 1989). Taxonomies are concerned with distinguishing different types of transfer, and therefore less involved with labeling the actual vehicle of transfer, i . e. , what is the explanatory mental unit of transfer that is carried over.Hence, a key problem with many transfer taxonomies is that they offer an excessive number of labels for different types of transfer without engaging in a discussion of the underlying concepts that would justify their distinction; i. e. , similarity and the nature of transferred information. This makes it very difficult to appreciate the internal validity of the models. The following table presents different types of transfer, as adapted from Schunk (2004, p. 220). TypeCharacteristics NearOverlap between situations, original and transfer contexts are similar. FarLittle overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are dissimilar.PositiveWhat is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting. NegativeWhat is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting. VerticalKnowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge. HorizontalKnowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic. LiteralIntact knowledge transfers to new task. FiguralUse some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem. Low RoadTransfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion. High RoadTransfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections between contexts.High Road/Forward ReachingAbstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer context. High Road/Backward ReachingAbstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where new skills and knowledge were learned. Apart from the effect-based distinction between negative and positive transfer, taxonomies have largely been constructed along two, mostly tacit, dimensions. One concerns the predicted relationship between the primary and secondary learning situation in terms of the categorical overlap of features and knowledge specificity constraints.The other concerns general assumptions about how t ransfer relationships are established, in terms of mental effort and cognitive process. The effect-perspective: positive vs. negative transfer Starting by looking at the effect side of transfer – in terms of the common performance criteria, speed and accuracy – transfer theories distinguish between two broad classes that underlie all other classifications: negative andpositive transfer. Negative transfer refers to the impairment of current learning and performance due to the application of non-adaptive or inappropriate information or behavior.Therefore, negative transfer is a type of interference effect of prior experience causing a slow-down in learning, completion or solving of a new task when compared to the performance of a hypothetical control group with no respective prior experience. Positive transfer, in contrast, emphasizes the beneficial effects of prior experience on current thinking and action. It is important to understand that the positive and negative ef fects of transfer are not mutually exclusive, and therefore real-life transfer effects are probably mostly a mixture of both.Positive transfer: transfer of learning or training is said to be positive when the learning or training carried out in one situation proves helpful to learning in another situation. Examples of such transfer are: †¢the knowledge and skills related to school mathematics help in the learning of statistical computation; †¢the knowledge and skills acquired in terms of addition and subtraction in mathematics in school may help a child in the acquisition of knowledge and skills regarding multiplication and division; †¢learning to play badminton may help an individual to play ping pong (table tennis) and lawn tennis.The situation perspective: specific vs. general, near vs. far transfer The situation-driven perspective on transfer taxonomies is concerned with describing the relation between transfer source (i. e. , the prior experience) and transfer ta rget (i. e. , the novel situation). In other words, the notion of novelty of the target situation per se is worthless without specifying the degree of novelty in relation to something that existed before. Butterfield and Nelson (1991), for example, distinguish between within-task, across-task, and inventive transfer.A similar classification approach reappears in many situation-driven transfer taxonomies (e. g. , similar vs. different situations, example-to-principle and vice versa, simple-to-complex and vice versa) and can be noted as distinctions made along the specific vs. general dimension. Mayer and Wittrock (1996, pp. 49ff. ) discuss transfer under the labels of general â€Å"transfer of general skill† (e. g. , â€Å"Formal Discipline†, Binet, 1899), â€Å"specific transfer of specific skill† (e. g. , Thorndike’s, 1924a, b, â€Å"identical elements† theory), â€Å"specific transfer of general skill† (e. g. Gestaltists' transfer theory, see origins with Judd, 1908), and â€Å"meta-cognitive control of general and specific skills† as a sort of combination of the previous three views (see, e. g. , Brown, 1989). Haskell's (2001) taxonomy proposes a more gradual scheme of similarity between tasks and situations. It distinguishes between non-specific transfer (i. e. , the constructivist idea that all learning builds on present knowledge), application transfer (i. e. , the retrieval and use of knowledge on a previously learned task), context transfer (actually meaning context-free transfer between similar tasks), near vs. ar transfer, and finally displacement or creative transfer (i. e. , an inventive or analytic type of transfer that refers to the creation of a new solution during problem solving as a result of a synthesis of past and current learning experiences). Both near and far transfer are widely used terms in the literature. The former refers to transfer of learning when task and/or context change slightly but remain largely similar, the latter to the application of learning experiences to related but largely dissimilar problems. The process perspectiveThe specific vs. general dimension applies not just to the focus on the relation between source and target, i. e. , from where to where is transferred, but also to the question about the transfer process itself, i. e. , what is transferred and how. Reproductive vs. productive transfer (see Robertson, 2001) are good examples of this type of distinction, whereas reproductive transfer refers to the simple application of knowledge to a novel task, productive transfer implies adaptation; i. e. mutation and enhancement of retained information.A similar dichotomous distinction is the one between knowledge transfer and problem-solving transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). Knowledge transfer takes place when knowing something after learning task A facilitates or interferes with the learning process or performance in task B. Knowledge used is refer red to by many different terms, such as declarative or procedural types (Anderson, 1976), but it means that there are representational elements that suit A and B. Problem solving transfer, on the other hand, is described as somewhat more â€Å"fluid knowledge† transfer, so that experience in solving a problem A helps finding a solution to problem B.This can mean that the two problems share little in terms of specific declarative knowledge entities or procedures, but call for a similar approach, or solution search strategies (e. g. , heuristics and problem solving methods). The issues discussed in problem-solving transfer literature are also closely related to the concepts of strategic and theoretic transfer (Haskell, 2001, p. 31), and cognitive research on analogical reasoning, rule-based thinking and meta-cognition.Indeed, far transfer can be considered as the prototypical type of transfer, and it is closely related to the study of analogical reasoning (see also Barnett & Ce ci, 2002, for a taxonomy of far transfer). Within the problem-solving literature the distinction between specific and general methods is made mostly with reference to Newell and Simon's (1972) strong vs. weak problem solving methods (Chi, Glaser & Farr, 1988; Ericsson & Smith, 1991; Singley & Anderson, 1989; Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Another concern that is frequently addressed in transfer taxonomies is the question of conscious effort.High-road vs. low-road transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Salomon & Perkins, 1989) expresses a distinction between such instances of transfer where active retrieval, mapping, and inference processes take place, as opposed to those instances that occur rather spontaneously or automatically. Hence, low-road transfer concerns frequently employed mental representations and automated, proceduralized knowledge, and occurs preferably in near transfer settings. In contrast, high-road transfer is more conception-driven, and requires cognitive and meta-cogniti ve effort. Traditional fields of transfer researchThere are a nearly unlimited number of research fields that share some applied interest into the study of transfer, as it pertains to learning in general. Three fields that contributed in most substantial ways to the progress of transfer research, both from a conception and empirical point of view, are the fields of education science, linguistics, and human-computer interaction (HCI). In fact, most transfer research has been conducted in reference to one of these applied settings, rather than in basic cognitive psychological laboratory conditions. Education science: teaching for transferDue to their core concern with learning, educational science and practice are the classic fields of interest regarding transfer research, and probably the prime target for the application of theories. Transfer of learning represents much of the very basis of the educational purpose itself. What is learned inside one classroom about a certain subject s hould aid in the attainment of related goals in other classroom settings, and beyond that it should be applicable to the student's developmental tasks outside the school; the need for transfer becomes more accentuated.This is because the world educators teach in today is different from the world they themselves experienced as students, and differs equally from the one their students will have to cope with in the future. By nature of their applied interest, educationalists' main concern has been less with the question of how transfer takes place, and much more with under what conditions, or, that it happens at all. The basic conviction that student's learning and achievement levels depend primarily on learning and achievement prerequisites, has constituted a central part in educational learning theories for quite some time (Gage & Berliner, 1983; Glaser, 984). The major focus in educational transfer studies has, therefore, been on what kind of initial learning enables subsequent tran sfer: teaching for transfer. Research on learning and transfer has identified key characteristics with implications for educational practice. From Formal Discipline to meta-cognition Educational transfer paradigms have been changing quite radically over the last one hundred years.According to the doctrinaire beliefs of the Formal Discipline (Binet, 1899) transfer was initially viewed as a kind of global spread of capabilities accomplished by training basic mental faculties (e. g. , logic, attention, memory) in the exercise of suitable subjects, such as Latin or geometry. With the turn of the 20th century, learning, and therefore transfer of learning, was increasingly captured in behavioral and empiricist terms, as in the Connectionist and Associationist theories of Thorndike (e. g. , 1932), Guthrie (e. g. , 1935), Hull (e. g. , 1943), and Skinner (e. g. , 1938).Thorndike (1923, 1924a and b) attacked the Formal Discipline empirically and theoretically and introduced the theory of â⠂¬Å"identical elements†, which is probably still today the most influential conception about transfer (Thorndike, 1906; Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901a, b and c). Thorndike's belief that transfer of learning occurs when learning source and learning target share common stimulus-response elements prompted calls for a hierarchical curricular structure in education. â€Å"Lower† and specific skills should be learned before more complex skills, which were presumed to consist largely of configuration of basic skills.This small-to-large learning, also referred to as part-to-whole or vertical transfer, has been popular with theories of learning hierarchies (Gagne, 1968). It has later been challenged from conceptualistic point of views, which argue that learning is not just an accumulation of pieces of knowledge (i. e. , rote memorization), but rather a process and product of active construction of cognitive knowledge structures (Bruner, 1986; Bruner, Goodnow & Austin, 1956). Knowl edge, from a constructivist perspective, was no more believed to be a simple transfer by generalization to all kinds of situations and tasks that contain similar components (i. . , stimulus-response patterns; see also Logan, 1988; Meyers & Fisk, 1987; Osgood, 1949; Pavlov, 1927). The critical issue was the identification of similarities in general principles and concepts behind the facades of two dissimilar problems; i. e. , transfer by insight. This idea became popular in the Gestaltists' view on transfer (e. g. , Katona, 1940), and, in combination with growing interest in learners as self activated problem-solvers (Bruner, 1986), encouraged the search for abstract problem-solving methods and mental schemata, which serve as analogy-enhancing transfer-bridges between different task situations.Emerging from these developments, a new theme started to dominate educationalists' research in transfer: meta-cognition (Brown, 1978; Brown & Campione, 1981; Campione & Brown, 1987; Flavell, 19 76). In contrast to classical knowledge forms like declarative and procedural knowledge, different types of meta-knowledge and meta-cognitive skills such as strategic knowledge, heuristics, self-monitoring skills, and self-regulation quickly became the road to learning and transfer.Characterized as self-conscious management and organization of acquired knowledge (Brown, 1987) it is evident that meta-cognitive awareness of task features, problem structures, and solution methods makes relations between different situations cognitively salient: only an individual who learns from learning, learns for future learning. Soini (1999) developed on the same core ideas an examination of the preconditions for active transfer. Her emphasis is on the active and self-reflected management of knowledge to increase its accessibility.To some researchers, meta-cognition and transfer have become so entangled that the argument was generated that only the measurement of positive transfer effects truly sup ports inferences that meta-cognitive learning has taken place (e. g. MacLeod, Butler & Syer, 1996). The generality predicament: return to the specificity view Ever since the introduction of the meta-knowledge theme in education science, transfer discussions have been oscillating between the position taken by those representing the meta-cognitive view and those who stress that generic knowledge forms alone do not allow an effective transfer of learning.When knowledge stays â€Å"on the tip of the tongue†, just knowing that one knows a solution to a problem, without being able to transfer specific declarative knowledge (i. e. , know-what) or automated procedural knowledge (i. e. , know-how), does not suffice. Specific teaching of the cognitive and behavioral requisites for transfer marked in principle a return to the identical element view, and can be summarized with Dettermann's (1993) conclusion that transfer does not substantially go beyond the restricted boundaries of what has been specifically taught and learned.The basic transfer paradigms in educational psychology keep replicating themselves, and fundamental promotion of transfer itself is seen to be achievable through sensibilization of students by creating a general culture and â€Å"a spirit of transfer† inside the classroom on the one hand, and by allowing concrete learning from transfer models on the other (Haskell, 2001). Learning and transfer: implications for educational practice A modern view of transfer in the context of educational practice shows little need to distinguish between the general and specific paradigms, recognizing the role of both identical elements and metacognition.In this view, the work of Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) identified four key characteristics of learning as applied to transfer. They are: 1. The necessity of initial learning; 2. The importance of abstract and contextual knowledge; 3. The conception of learning as an active and dynamic process; and 4. The notion that all learning is transfer. First, the necessity of initial learning for transfer specifies that mere exposure or memorization is not learning; there must be understanding.Learning as understanding takes time, such that expertise with deep, organized knowledge improves transfer. Teaching that emphasizes how to use knowledge or that improves motivation should enhance transfer. Second, while knowledge anchored in context is important for initial learning, it is also inflexible without some level of abstraction that goes beyond the context. Practices to improve transfer include having students specify connections across multiple contexts or having them develop general solutions and strategies that would apply beyond a single-context case.Third, learning should be considered an active and dynamic process, not a static product. Instead of one-shot tests that follow learning tasks, students can improve transfer by engaging in assessments that extend beyond current abilit ies. Improving transfer in this way requires instructor prompts to assist students – such as dynamic assessments – or student development of metacognitive skills without prompting. Finally, the fourth characteristic defines all learning as transfer.New learning builds on previous learning, which implies that teachers can facilitate transfer by activating what students know and by making their thinking visible. This includes addressing student misconceptions and recognizing cultural behaviors that students bring to learning situations. A student-learning centered view of transfer embodies these four characteristics. With this conception, teachers can help students transfer learning not just between contexts in academics, but also to common home, work, or community environments. Inter-language transferAnother traditional field of applied research is inter-language transfer. Here, the central questions were: how does learning one language (L1) facilitate or interfere (Wei nreich, 1953) with the acquisition of and proficiency in a second language (L2), and how does the training and use of L2, in turn, affect L1? Several variations of this conception of inter-language transfer can be found in the literature, also referred to as mother tongue influence or cross language interference (Corder, 1983, 1994; Faerch & Kasper, 1987; Jiang & Kuehn, 2001; Odlin, 1989; O’Malley nd Chamot, 1990). What makes inter-language transfer a complex and valuable research matter is the fact that language knowledge skills continuously develop. This is so for L1, as well as for L2, when only bilingualism is considered, while alternately at least one of them is continuously in use. This has led to the development of very different models of how languages are mentally represented and managed, with L1 and L2 seen as two independent or autonomous mental systems (e. g. Genesee, 1989; Grosjean, 1989), as being represented in a single unified system (e. g.Redlinger & Park, 19 80; Swain, 1977), and as rooting in a common underlying, multi-lingual conceptual base (CUCB; see Kecskes & Papp, 2000). Human-Computer Interaction: designing for transfer A third research area that has produced a variety of transfer models and empirical results can be located within the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). With the start of the user age in the 1980s, HCI and all kinds of virtual environments have, in many ways, become something like psychological micro-worlds for cognitive research. This is naturally also reflected in the study of transfer.Developments in favor of cognitive approaches to transfer research were especially accelerated by rapid changes in modern lifestyles, resulting in a virtual upsurge of cognitive demands in interaction with technology. Thus, the call was on clearly domain-focused cognitive models to study the way users learn and perform when interacting with information technological systems (Card, Moran & Newell, 1980a and b, 1983; Olson & Olson, 1990; Payne & Green, 1986; Polson, 1987, 1988). Transfer based on the user complexity theory Thorough investigations of cognitive skills involved in HCI tasks have their origins with the research on text editing (e. . , Kieras & Polson, 1982, 1985; Singley & Anderson, 1985). The offspring of this type of research were computational cognitive models and architectures of various degrees of sophistication, suitable for all kinds of man-machine interaction studies, as well as studies outside of the HCI domain. The original examples for these have become Kieras and Polson's (1985) user complexity theory (later rephrased as cognitive complexity theory) and the GOMS family (i. e. , Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection) rules based on the Model Human Processor framework (Card et al. , 1980a and b, 1983; John & Kieras, 1996a and b).All of these models have their roots in the basic principles of production systems and can be comprehended with the help of ends-means-selections and If-Th en-rules, combined with the necessary declarative and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1995; Newell & Simon, 1972). The crucial perspective for transfer became that of technology design. By applying cognitive models, scientists and practitioners aimed at minimizing the amount and complexity of new knowledge necessary to understand and perform tasks on a device, without trading off too much utility value (Polson & Lewis, 1990).A key responsibility was given to skill and knowledge transfer. Due to the fact that the cognitive complexity theory is a psychological theory of transfer applied to HCI (Bovair, Kieras, & Polson, 1990; Polson & Kieras, 1985), the central question was how these models, united under the GOMS umbrella, can be used to explain and predict transfer of learning. The basic transfer-relevant assumptions of the emerging models were that production rules are cognitive units, they are all equally difficult to learn, and that learned rules can be transferred to a new task w ithout any cost.Because learning time for any task is seen as a function of the number of new rules that the user must learn, total learning time is directly reduced by inclusion of productions the user is already familiar with. The basic message of the cognitive complexity theory is to conceptualize and induce transfer from one system to another by function of shared production rules, which is a new interpretation of Thorndike's (1923, 1924a and b) identical element premise and eventually echoed in Singley and Anderson's (1989) theory of transfer (Bovair et al. 1990; Kieras & Bovair, 1986; Polson & Kieras, 1985; Polson, Muncher & Engelbeck, 1986). A practical implication of the procedural communality principle has been formulated by Lewis and Rieman (1993), who suggest something like â€Å"transfer of design† on the side of the industry: â€Å"You should find existing interfaces that work for users and then build ideas from those interfaces into your systems as much as prac tically and legally possible. † Emergence of holistic views of useDiscouraged by the confined character of the GOMS-related transfer models, many research groups began to import and advance new concepts, such as schemata principles and general methods; a general development encouraged by the emerging cognitive approach to transfer that was also witnessed by other applied fields. Bhavnani and John (2000) analyzed different computer applications and strived to identify such user strategies (i. e. , general methods to perform a certain task), which generalize across three distinct computer domains (word processor, spreadsheet, and CAD).Their conclusive argument is that â€Å"strategy-conducive systems could facilitate the transfer of knowledge† (p. 338). Other research groups' authors that assessed the questions about how people learn in interaction with information systems, evaluated the usefulness of metaphors and how these should be taken into consideration when designi ng for exploratory environments (e. g. Baecker, Grudin, Buxton, & Greenberg, 1995; Carroll & Mack, 1985, Condon, 1999).As researchers became increasingly interested in the quality of a user's knowledge representation (e. g. , Gott, Hall, Pokorny, Dibble, & Glaser, 1993), mental models and adaptive expertise, as knowledge and skills which generalizes across different contexts of complex problem-solving tasks, became of paramount concern (Gentner & Stevens, 1983; Gott, 1989; Kieras & Bovair, 1984). In contrast to the knowledge of strategies (Bhavnani & John, 2000), the accentuation shifted towards strategic knowledge (Gott et al. 1993). Gott et al. demonstrated that surface similarities between different technical domains alone did not essentially facilitate transfer of learning because they limited the user's flexibility in the adaptation process. In accordance with the ideas of schema-based and meta-cognitive transfer, the authors further formulated that â€Å"robust performance is one in which procedural steps are not just naked, rule-based actions, but instead are supported by explanations that perform like theories to enable adaptiveness† (p. 60). Gott et al. (1993) finally noted that mental models might be powerful instruments to analyze similarities between tasks as represented within a formulated cognitive architecture. However, they do not explain what particular similarities and differences are sufficiently salient from the individual's mental point of view to affect transfer of learning, nor can they predict motivational or emotional conditions of transfer that are essential requisites for every learning process.

Oil and Natural Gas: Its Effects to America and the Global Economy Essay

Oil and natural gas have a very important role in the lives of almost all people in the world. These have been the primary source of energy that fuels the technological civilization that exists at the present. Its importance could be seen in the everyday lives of most individuals. The moment someone wakes up in the morning and read the newspaper up to the time that same person would sleep in the comforts of his/her home, the utilization of petroleum products are present. The newspaper is produced out of ink coming from oil as well as the printing machine that is operated by the same means of energy. Similarly, oil-operated machineries also create the various infrastructures like the houses people live in. Furthermore, even computers, which are widely used today in terms of government services and even in mere personal purposes, are run by electricity coming from natural gas. According to Pfeiffer, the present civilization is built on oil and that economic progress will continue as long as there is a continuous supply of this energy. This is also the reason why the volatile and fluctuating prices of oil and natural gas affect numerous countries as well as its citizens. Its status in the international market has implications in the economies of countries like the United States of America and basically, the whole world. Oil and natural gas that are the backbone of this society’s economy has a long history behind it. These sources of energy come from the earth’s ground as either solids, liquids, or gases. Crude oil or petroleum is liquid source of energy that is considered as a commercial fossil fuel. Natural gas as well as propane comes in gaseous form. Coal, on the other hand is a solid form of energy (Nonrenewable Energy). These energy sources are formed in the earth millions of years ago when it was still covered by water. Combine remains of animals and tiny plants that are layered together with sand and mud are also present. During the time that the earth underwent drastic changes, intense amount of heat and pressure were present, which have been the caused for these fossils to turn into hydrocarbons. Basically, what are simple remnants of plants and animals have turned into valuable deposits of crude oil and natural gas inside the crust of the earth (Discover the wonders of natural gas). Natural gas is often defined as a combustible, gaseous mixture made up of simple hydrocarbons. It is a very light portion of petroleum that includes both natural gas as well as crude oil. Natural gas often rise through the surface by means of natural openings in the earth’s crust or it can be brought to the surface by man-made wells. Thousand of years ago, it was discovered that this gas could be burned and be utilized for heat and light. At present, natural gas is still one of the safest, efficient, and abundant source of energy in the world (Discover the wonders of natural gas The importance of oil and natural gas to the world’s economy is very vital, which is why a decline in its resources would mean a devastating crisis which would affect countries not only with the likes of the United States of America but also the whole world. According to the Energy Information Administration and the Department of Commerce and Bureau of Economic Analysis (Pfeiffer), United States’ was able to acquire its status as a superpower in the global economy due to the availability of oil, natural gas, and coal. The increase in the energy consumption is directly proportional with the income of the U.  S. because the higher the amount of energy consumed, the annual gross domestic product (GDP) also increases. However, a large amount of the country’s GDP becomes reliant in the consumption of energy. If a decline in energy consumption takes place then this will eventually have an adverse effect in the annual gross domestic product of the country. What is even worst is the idea that the decline of consumption is suspected to change abruptly rather than gradually. This could lead to the collapsed of the market especially when the investors realized that the decrease in energy resources could not be reversed. The outcome of this situation would entail a crisis that is worse than the Great Depression of 1930s (Pfeiffer). The adverse effect in the lack or limited supply of oil resources is greatly felt during the 1973 Oil Crisis. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries that is mostly composed of Arab nations decided to imposed an oil embargo in western countries especially in the United States of America. This action is brought about by the participation of western countries in the Yom Kippur War wherein they supported Israel in this armed conflict. Another reason of the embargo is the realization of member countries of the OPEC of the important position they have in the global economy. They started to increase the prices of oil and at the same time decrease its supply. Basically, OPEC utilized the oil embargo as both a political tactic as well as a means of empowering themselves. In doing so, they were able to punished the western countries for supplying arms to the Israelis and at the same time realized their potential due to the effects of their action towards other countries (Horton). United States of America experienced an abrupt increase in the prices of petroleum products. The prices quadrupled from a mere 25 cents to almost a dollar within the span of a few months. The country was in complete disarray. A nation that was so accustomed to driving vehicles in their everyday lives was now powerless with the high prices of oil. People have to wait for about two to three hours in line just to get their car’s fueled. The consumption of oil dropped about twenty percent due to the high prices of oil as well as the efforts of the citizens to conserve money (Horton). The U. S. government did extreme measures in order to conserve oil. The congress issued a speed limit of 55mph that reduced fuel consumption and reports of fatalities. Even the practiced of the daylight savings time happened during that period in order to conserve energy. Tax credits were also given to those people who could devised new sources of energy like solar and wind power. Moreover, President Nixon, who was the president during that time, created the Energy Department and made it a part of the cabinet office. Its main purpose is to developed energy policy that could make the U.  S. energy independent. The oil companies also cooperated in Nixon’s call for energy conservation as they voluntarily closed on Sundays and they only cater to their regular customers. They only sell ten gallons of gasoline or less at a time. Being the case, they believed that these would contribute in making the American citizens thriftier in using petroleum products (Horton). Arab countries especially the members of the OPEC once again exported oil to western countries. However, the shipment of petroleum products has inflated prices. One of the crucial effects of the oil crisis is the economic decline the world experienced due the an inflation rate that remained above ten percent as well as the record high unemployment rate. After World War II, economic growth, which was happening worldwide, has been observable but this was no longer the case due to the oil embargo that took place. According to Horton, at present, the effects of the 1973 oil crisis are still being felt. This can be seen in the practices of most people. Nowadays, fuel-efficient vehicles are more patronized as compared to big cars that are very gas consuming. Most appliances that are used today require less energy consumption as compared before. Furthermore, the exploration of resources and other means of energy also increased in the U. S. The series of armed conflict in the Middle East change the pattern of consumption of oil products. Oil is responsible for approximately one-third of the energy used in the world. The series of wars starting from the Iranian revolution in 1979-1980 up to the Iran-Iraq war in 1980 had caused a drop in the over all consumption of oil in the world. In 1980, 63 million barrels are consumed per day but it decreases into 59 million barrels per day in 1983. However, the consumption of petroleum products in the world has increased ever since with 84 million barrels per day in 2005 (United States Government Accountability Office, p. 9). The United States of America also experience an increase in the consumption of petroleum products since 1983 to 2004, from 1. 65 percent annually to an averaged of 20. 6 million barrels per day in 2005. The country consumes one-quarter of the world’s oil consumption. According to the projections of the Energy Information Agency, U.  S. consumption will continue to increase up to 27. 6 million barrels per day by the year 2030 (United States Government Accountability Office, p. 9). The duration of the oil crisis has also paved the way for a new idea in the international economy in terms of monetary and the oil industry. Dr. Ibrahim Oweiss, a professor of economics at the Georgetown University coined the term â€Å"petrodollar†. This word connotes the money being paid by western countries in exchange for petroleum products that mostly comes from west Asian countries or the Middle East. This took place during the time where there is a significant increase in dollar surpluses. Most countries especially the developing ones are exchanging their commodities for dollars (Washington Affairs). According to the Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, the petrodollar poses a new threat in the American economy as well as the world’s. If during the oil crisis of 1973, petroleum products were utilized in order to punish western countries from its participation in the Yom Kippur War. At present, petrodollar could be a viable weapon for Middle Eastern countries to once again affect the economic situation of the world. This would become possible if an Arab nation would pull out its investment from New York Banks, which will trigger a tremendous shift in the U. S. economy. However, Dr. Oweiss himself warned that if ever such incident would take place the U. S. government would implement the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, which would freeze the asset instead of allowing it to be removed. The investment of the Middle East in the U. S. is then considered as a form of â€Å"capital hostage†. The politics behind the supply and demand for oil could be attributed to the important role that it has in the economy of the world especially in countries like the United States of America. However, petroleum products are considered to be finite resources or non-renewable source of energy. Non-renewable resource like petroleum products are sources of energy that cannot be replenished, regenerated, or re-made in a short span of time. It exist in a particular fixed amount which could be totally consumed before it could be re-made again by nature (Nonrenewable Energy). The finite or limited source of oil and natural gas has a huge effect on the pattern of supply and demand, which will eventually affect the price for these commodities. The price of oil in the world market determined based upon the balance between the world’s demand and supply. Recently, the production of oil has reach its near capacity because of the continuous increase in demand, which is also the reason why there is an upward pressure in oil prices (United States Government Accountability Office, p. 0). Oil consumption is inversely proportional with oil prices. Higher oil prices caused consumers to reduce their oil consumption. Increases in crude oil are also reflected in other petroleum products like gasoline, diesel, home heating oil, as well as petrochemicals. Consumers’ adaptability to the increase in oil prices is greatly dependent on the cost of changing their activities and shifting their lifestyle in order for them to utilized less oil. In connection with that, consumers are believed to have more options in adapting to the high prices of oil in the long term rather than in the short-term situation. Reducing the amount of oil consumed in the short terms would be possible by merely driving less or more slowly as compared to the long term solution wherein people could actually purchase a more fuel-efficient vehicle or moved closer to work so that their consumption of oil would be reduced (United States Government Accountability Office, p. 11).